The Paradox of Self-Interest
Why it destroys some people, liberates others, and is part of every friendship.
What is Self-Interest?
In the summer of 327 BC, having conquered Persia, Alexander the Great set his sights on India.
Indian merchants who traveled to Egypt would have known he was coming for a long time, but India’s heads of state thought little of it. Alexander was from distant Macedonia, north of the Mediterranean Sea. He would have to hold Egypt, plus take Persia, to get their attention.
Besides, India’s rulers were mired in their own squabbles. Far-away wars simply were not a priority. They had no interest in distant warlords.
Nevertheless, city after city fell before Alexander’s army. His men slaughtered anyone who resisted without mercy, and he was rumored to be a god. Most cities surrendered without a fight.
Even as Alexander conquered Persia, India’s best generals observed that his army only had 35,000 soldiers.
How could he possibly rule such a large empire with such a small army? It must have seemed impossible.
The tales merchants told of Alexander’s conquests would have sounded like wild fantasies and exaggeration, and did nothing to change their minds.
A year later, Alexander was capturing princes in northern Pakistan.
In July of 326 BC, he defeated the Indian king Porus along the river Hydaspes. On the battlefield, he proved to be a master of deception. He suddenly had the attention of India’s rulers.
Porus’ army, though vastly bigger, was ill-equipped and his soldiers were unprepared. Nevertheless, he was willing to die fighting.
It was obvious to Alexander that Porus was an experienced and committed leader. So, rather than killing him during the battle, Alexander spared his life and made him an offer afterwards: In exchange for treasure and loyalty, Porus could remain in power as Governor of his former kingdom.
Porus accepted and as a result, very little changed for his people.
Is Self-Interest Anti-Social?
On the other side of India, surrounding the river Ganges, was the Magadha Empire. The king, Nanda, was despised by his subjects and his ministers found him difficult.
He regarded Porus as a rival of poor intellect, and the feeling was mutual.
In a letter Porus sent to Alexander before the battle by the Hydaspes, he noted that nobody respected Nanda. He wrote that almost everyone regarded King Nanda as a man of “worthless character”.
Nanda did not follow any principles of good conduct whatsoever. He was the youngest of 8 cut-throat brothers. His grandfather was a barber who was famous for treachery. Even other kings regarded his taxes were oppressive.
In Nanda’s court, there was a bureaucrat named Chanakya. He was a grumpy fellow, frequently described as ugly, and often depicted with a scowl. He was also brilliant.
Chanakya wrote the first Arthashasta – an extensive treatise on statecraft, diplomacy, economics, agriculture, politics, and warfare. It has profoundly influenced Indian civilization for over 2000 years. Although it was revised several times by later scholars, today’s versions still contain the same principles.
Chanakya had a vision of a prosperous and united India.
Nanda’s father once awarded him “the first seat in the empire” because his advice was so highly valued. Indeed, Chanakya influenced most of India's leaders. Nearly everyone with political power respected him.
Chanakya could have a very sobering effect on people, but not the king. Nanda was prone to responding disproportionately to situations. As king, he simply did not inspire loyalty, compassion, or a sense of unity among his top advisors.
Nevertheless, Chanakya did whatever he could to stabilize Nanda’s government.
For example, Nanda’s Prime Minister, Rakshasa, once made a secret pact with 5 rival kings. They sent an assassin to kill Nanda. Except, one of Chanakya’s spies found out, prevented the killing, and stole Rakshasa’s signet ring.
Then, Chanakya forged a letter and used the ring to seal it. He sent a carefully crafted lie to one of the 5 enemy kings; that the other conspirators were plotting against him. The enemy king was convinced by it and Rakshasa could not change his mind.
Soon, all 5 enemy kings were trying to kill each other instead of King Nanda.
So long as Chanakya sat on the First Seat, Rakshasa’s plots were thwarted, and the Magadha Empire remained stable – even with Nanda on the throne.
Why is Self-Interest Important?
Nanda’s army was much larger than Alexander’s. He had 2000 four-horse chariots; 3000 elephants; 20,000 cavalry soldiers; and 200,000 infantry soldiers. Except, he had also poisoned all his friendships.
Alexander was mentored by the philosopher Aristotle. He had outwitted assassins, conquered Egypt and Persia, and his ability to rally his army was unparalleled.
Nanda seemed foolish to him.
Nanda looked down on Chanakya because of his appearance. There are conflicting stories about what transpired between them, but one thing is clear: Nanda had stripped Chanakya of the First Seat by the time Alexander fought Porus.
Even so, Chanakya remained loyal to Magadha and could see that Nanda was making mistakes. So, he went to the palace to explain that Alexander was a master of battlefield deception, that Porus’ army was unprepared, and how weaknesses in Nanda’s defenses could be exploited.
Nanda laughed and called him ugly.
Chanakya was furious. He stormed out of the palace, let down his ponytail, and vowed to keep it down until Nanda was destroyed.
If Alexander was to be Nanda’s downfall, so be it, he thought.
Is Self-Interest Moral?
After the battle with Porus, Alexander’s men were exhausted. They were deeply concerned about the size of Nanda’s army and longed for home. They demanded to return to Greece, so they could reunite with their wives and children.
Rather than face mutiny, Alexander ordered his army to march south. Their course was along the Indus River, and it became the border of his empire.
When Chanakya learned that Alexander was no longer coming, he vowed to replace Nanda himself. Over the next year, he took the necessary steps.
First, he decided to train one of his own sons to be king.
The boy he chose was reputed to be brave and well-mannered. His name was Chandragupta Maurya, and his mother was a lesser queen. This meant he could legitimately claim to be royalty.
With Chanakya’s guidance and instruction, Chandragupta quickly became popular among Nanda’s subjects. Still, Chandragupta’s popularity did not give him enough power to seize the throne without a war - and he didn’t have an army.
So, Chanakya struck a bargain with a neighboring king. He offered half of Magadha in exchange for a war with Nanda. The king would dethrone and slay Nanda, and Chandragupta would ascend to the throne of a country half its former size.
The neighboring king accepted, went to war with Nanda, and won.
At the end of the war, somehow, Nanda escaped with his sons. So, Chanakya sent spies to poison them. When he received confirmation that all the males in Nanda’s family were dead, he finally put his ponytail back up.
Still, Chanakya’s work was not done. The Magadha Empire was divided between an inexperienced young king and rival with a victorious army. There remained several members of Nanda’s court with aspirations of power.
Rakshasa immediately saw Nanda’s death as an opportunity. He went to Chanakya’s military ally and offered to have Chandragupta assassinated. They could then seize power while the palace was in chaos, and Rakshasa could be Prime Minister again.
The rival king agreed to the plan.
Rakshasa sent several assassins to kill Chandragupta, but none succeeded. Every single time, Chanakya somehow outwitted them.
Once, Chanakya caught a physician trying to poison Chandragupta. Chanakya made the physician taste the medicine first, and it killed him.
Another time, Chanakya spotted a seductive female assassin at a royal event. So, he had her captured. Then he sent her to kill his former ally, the rival king, instead.
Rakshasa kept trying, but it wasn’t long until he ran out of friends. His allies kept dying. One of his assassination attempts backfired so badly he was forced into hiding. He could not get an army, let alone become Prime Minister again.
His treachery cost him everything.
Can We Transcend Self-Interest?
Defeat is like a well of bitter lessons, unique to every person. One night, having lost all access to the palace grounds, Rakshasa went for a walk in the forest to ponder.
He knew that Alexander had posed a genuine threat. He also knew that Nanda was unfit to rule. He recalled how often Nanda frustrated him when he was Prime Minister. He noticed his breathing get deeper and more relaxed.
Rakshasa was, more than anything else, relieved that Nanda would no longer rule. The stress of governing under him had taken a heavy toll. Any desire he once had for the throne vanished.
Rather, he hoped Chandragupta would be a better, more competent leader.
"There is some self-interest behind every friendship. There is no friendship without self-interests. This is a bitter truth."
- Chanakya
Just then, Chanakya pulled up in a chariot. He had witnessed Rakshasa’s work as Prime Minister for many years. Rakshasa had always done a good job, despite the problems caused by Nanda.
The two men spoke. It was clear Rakshasa had a change of heart. So, Chanakya asked Rakshasa to join Chandragupta’s new government as a high-ranking minister.
Rakshasa was astonished. He graciously accepted, and gladly swore loyalty.
Does Self-Interest Benefit Society?
In 323 BCE, Alexander returned to Persia and declared himself “God-King”. The Indus River became the border between his empire and India, and he terrified his subjects. According to one Persian folktale still told today, Alexander killed 7 barbers for letting his “devil horns” show.
While Chandragupta and Nanda were at war over Magadha, Alexander died mysteriously in Babylon. He was 32 years old. After a physician declared him dead, his corpse did not start decomposing for 6 days in an environment where it normally starts right away. It seems he may have been alive, but paralyzed, for several days.
The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta in 322 BCE with half the lands previously ruled by Nanda. Documents show that Rakshasa became a trusted minister in Chandragupta’s government. Shortly thereafter, Chanakya retired to his hermitage to write.
Chanakya designed a unified system of finance, administration, and security for the new empire. Maurya prospered and by 317 BCE, it included most of Northeastern India. Chandragupta and his heirs surely studied the Arthashasta because they all applied knowledge from it. They developed and encouraged trade, agriculture, and economic activities according to Chanakya’s principles. At its peak, around 185 BCE, the Maurya Empire covered most of present-day India and Pakistan.